The Epic of Gilgamesh, originating from ancient Mesopotamia, is one of the oldest known literary works in human history. It begins with five Sumerian poems about Gilgamesh, the king of Uruk, dating back to around 2100 BC. These stories were later amalgamated into a single epic in Akkadian. The oldest surviving version, called the “Old Babylonian” version, dates back to the 18th century BC and is known by its opening words, Shūtur eli sharrī (“Surpassing All Other Kings”). The most complete version, however, is the Standard Babylonian version compiled by Sîn-lēqi-unninni between the 13th and 10th centuries BC, known as Sha naqba īmuru (“He who Saw the Deep”).

Synopsis of the Epic

The First Half: Friendship and Adventure

The epic begins by introducing Gilgamesh, a tyrannical king who oppresses his people. To stop him, the gods create Enkidu, a wild man. After being civilized through interaction with Shamhat, a temple prostitute, Enkidu travels to Uruk and challenges Gilgamesh. They become friends after a fierce battle. Together, they embark on a quest to the Cedar Forest, where they slay the guardian Humbaba and cut down sacred trees. This act angers the gods, and Ishtar, the goddess of love, sends the Bull of Heaven to punish them. Gilgamesh and Enkidu kill the bull, further infuriating the gods, who then decide to punish Enkidu with death.

The Second Half: Quest for Immortality

Devastated by Enkidu’s death, Gilgamesh embarks on a quest to discover the secret of eternal life. His journey leads him to Utnapishtim, a survivor of a great flood who was granted immortality by the gods. Utnapishtim tells Gilgamesh that immortality is reserved for the gods and shares the story of the flood. Despite his efforts, Gilgamesh learns that eternal life is unattainable for mortals, and he returns to Uruk, accepting his human limitations.

Historical Discovery

Initial Discoveries

The story of Gilgamesh was rediscovered in the 19th century. In the early 1850s, Austen Henry Layard, Hormuzd Rassam, and W. K. Loftus found about 15,000 Assyrian cuneiform tablets in the library of Ashurbanipal in Nineveh. George Smith later translated fragments of these tablets, revealing the epic to the modern world.

Subsequent Findings

Significant progress in understanding the epic was made in the 20th century, with various scholars like Paul Haupt and Peter Jensen contributing to the compilation and translation of the texts. In 1998, Theodore Kwasman discovered a fragment containing the first lines of the epic, further enriching the textual corpus. The discovery of artifacts from Enmebaragesi of Kish, a figure mentioned in the epic, has lent credibility to the historical existence of Gilgamesh.

Versions of the Epic

Old Babylonian Version

This version is fragmented but provides valuable insights into the early form of the narrative. Tablets and fragments from diverse origins have been pieced together to form a partial reconstruction of the epic’s early versions.

Standard Babylonian Version

Compiled by Sîn-lēqi-unninni, this version is more complete and structured, emphasizing themes of mortality and wisdom. It consists of twelve tablets, with the final tablet being a later addition that deals with Gilgamesh’s reflections on life and death.

Cultural and Literary Significance

Influence on Later Literature

The Epic of Gilgamesh has profoundly influenced later literary traditions, including Greek heroic epics. It serves as a prototype for later heroes like Heracles and has thematic parallels with works such as Homer’s epics.

Biblical Parallels

Scholars have noted similarities between the epic and several Biblical narratives. The flood story in Gilgamesh closely resembles the one in Genesis, suggesting a common cultural tradition. Additionally, themes from the epic resonate with the stories of Adam and Eve, and Ecclesiastes.

Conclusion

The Epic of Gilgamesh is not only a cornerstone of ancient literature but also a rich source of historical and cultural insights. Its themes of friendship, the quest for immortality, and the acceptance of human mortality continue to resonate with modern readers. As one of the earliest narratives exploring human experiences, it remains a timeless work that bridges ancient and contemporary worlds.